Copies of these General Articles and Nomenclatural Notes can be obtained free of charge from the Executive Secretary, The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, c/o The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K. (e-mail: iczn@nhm.ac.uk).

 

Lipke Bijdeley Holthuis – Commissioner 1953–1996, crustacean taxonomist and Naturalis curator

  Dr Lipke Bijdeley Holthuis, a member of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature between 1953 and 1996, died in Leiden, Netherlands on 7 March 2008. He worked mostly on decapod crustaceans during his long and distinguished career, and was a foremost carcinologist.
  Lipke was born in Probolinggo, Eastern Java, Netherlands East Indies (now Indonesia) on 21 April 1921, where his father was teacher and director of the training school for native officials; his mother was a schoolteacher before her marriage. He maintained his interest and love for the tremendous biodiversity of Southeast Asia even as he grew up and studied in the Netherlands. He was a member of the Netherlands Youth Organization for the Study of Nature in The Hague in the 1930s, where Niko Tinbergen was very influential. This doubtless sowed the seeds for his life-long interest in birds and opened his eyes to the fascinating behaviour of his beloved decapods.
  Lipke read biology at the Rijksuniversiteit Leiden (1937–1941), where he obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1946 with his thesis ‘The Stenopodidae, Nephropsidae, Scyllaridae and Palinuridae. The Decapoda Macrura of the Snellius Expedition I’, published in 1947 in Temminckia. He started work at the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, now the National Museum of Natural History – Naturalis, in 1941, initially as a honorary assistant curator, and becoming curator of crustaceans from 1947. He was responsible for the Division of Crustacea between 1950 and 1May 1986, the official day of his retirement – an astonishing 45 years of continuous service. Even during the war, Lipke continued his work, hiding in the museum throughout the Second World War. Many of his publications were landmark studies of important groups, including monographs on lobsters, prawns and crayfishes. Papers he wrote in the 1950s are still regularly cited, and, despite their age, are invaluable for any student of carcinology.
  Retirement in 1986 did not stop Lipke’s research activity. He continued on for several more years but by the early 1990s he decided that he should wind down and not start any new projects. He was a man acutely aware of his mortality and immensely practical. He felt that many carcinologists left a great deal of ‘‘unfinished business’’ behind when they died, and subsequent scholars were then saddled with the onerous task of sorting things out. This, he felt, was not a ‘‘gentlemanly’’ thing to do. He decided merely to finish all he started before he retired and only continue with work on the history of carcinology and nomenclature. He had two ‘‘great unfinished tasks’’ at the point of his retirement – a revision of the scyllarid lobsters and a completion of the study of his beloved New Guinean crayfish. The first he accomplished with a wonderful tome on scyllarids in 2002, published in the French journal Zoosystema. He could not finish the crayfish. His eventual bibliography consists of more than 600 titles and more than 10,000 pages.
  He was passionate about the history of science and the intricacies of the past, which made him a superlative nomenclaturist. For many taxonomists, it is a veritable nightmare trying to decipher and untangle the historical complexities and confusions associated with old names. Species that we named long ago have many names, written in many languages and styles, in many different old journals which are not easily accessible, and often in ways so obtuse and brief, that trying to make sense of it is daunting. Lipke genuinely enjoyed the challenge of such ‘nomenclatural nightmares’ and he invariably solved every problem by using his love of history with a legalistic interpretation of the zoological code and practicality. In his long career, his nomenclatural skills have been utilised not only to solve numerous crustacean problems, but also cases in mammals, birds and fish. He actively participated in the preparation of many applications to the Commission, and was responsible for stabilising the nomenclature (and taxonomy) of many important genera and species of decapod crustaceans. This was a duty he performed even after he formally retired from the museum in 1986. His long service in the Zoological Commission is testament to his dedication – he was a Commissioner for 43 years. In addition, Lipke was its Vice President from 1964 to 1977, Acting President from 1965 to 1972, and Secretary General from 1985 to 1989. He was a very active commissioner with more than 150 contributions to the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, the first in 1951, and the last in 2007. He was highly respected by Commissioners and peers alike for his pragmatical attitude to nomenclature and what it must do. His perception of nomenclature was always that it was a service science – and that commissioners should remain impartial and neutral. The facts should always speak for themselves and decisions made for the greater good, regardless of personal egos or self-interests. Lipke was a conservative – but a very practical one. He was perhaps the first ‘‘true-blue’’ nomenclature lawyer.
  Lipke was deeply interested in the people who made up his scientific landscape. He published a history of the Leiden museum, ‘1820–1958. Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie’, including concise biographies with portraits of all staff members of the museum (available in Dutch at www.repository.naturalis.nl). He also kept records of the lives and research activities of past carcinologists, and had detailed files on many of them. Lipke never married, his entire world revolved around taxonomy and nomenclature. And he never had any regrets – he was proud to have given his life to science. When the museum was still at the Raamsteeg, before moving to its new building, staff members had their own keys to open the building anytime they wished – and Lipke usually did so at about 5:00 a.m. every day except Sundays! Many colleagues all over the world sought his advice, both in taxonomic and nomenclatural matters, and Lipke regularly received specimens for identification from all parts of the world. He dealt with all these tasks meticulously and promptly – clinically answering questions and offering practical solutions. He earned tremendous respect and appreciation for his unselfish readiness to help colleagues all over the world, especially from those without access to literature, not familiar with nomenclature and taxonomy, or who were confounded by the complexities of Latin. His generosity often went even further – he has helped many colleagues from developing countries write, edit and finish their papers, and even facilitated their publication on many occasions. He believed strongly that this was necessary as science had to grow around the world. He was a supreme teacher – always encouraging and positive to scholars young and old – the only prerequisite being that they must be truly interested.
  Lipke will be remembered at his museum as a sympathetic colleague, among carcinologists as a master and selfless teacher, and in the nomenclatural community as a towering figure. He epitomises what all scientists strive to be – a gentleman scholar. His influence on carcinologists around the world has been immense – hundreds of researchers today from New and Old Worlds, North and South have been helped, and influenced by his activities. Through them, Lipke’s influence will live on.

Jan van Tol & Peter K.L. Ng

 

Frederick M. Bayer – Commissioner 1972–1995, octocoral taxonomist and Smithsonian curator

  Frederick ‘Ted’ M. Bayer, 85, a Commissioner for 23 years (1972–1995) and former Smithsonian curator, died after a long illness on October 2, 2007 in Washington, D.C. His contribution to the Commission’s work was steadfast and conscientious, voting on over 800 nomenclatural opinions in his long service.
  Dr Bayer was a productive and influential taxonomist, having the honour of many species of both gastropods and octocorals named after him. Although there are too many to accurately list here, highlights include four genera named in his honor: Bayerxenia Alderslade, 2001; Bayericerithium Petuch, 2001; Bayerotrochus Harasewych, 2002, and Bayergorgia Williams & López-González, 2005. When asked his opinion about the last paper, he responded that it was a fine paper, but a terrible generic name. Several dozen species from many different groups of animals have been named in his honor, including the hydroid Hydractinia bayeri Hirohito, 1984, described by his colleague, the Emperor of Japan.
  Dr Bayer published over 130 papers and books on the taxonomy and natural history of soft corals (i.e. octocorals: sea fans and sea whips), describing over 170 new species, 40 genera, and even three new families. He was long acknowledged as the doyen of soft coral research, attracting visitors and collections to the Smithsonian from all parts of the world.
  He was an outstanding bio-illustrator, both in black and white line drawings (the stipple technique) as well as color paintings. He painted a series of fourteen beautiful, scientifically accurate underwater scenes that were used for a set of postage stamps for Haiti in 1973. After the scanning electron microscope was invented, he employed it assiduously to examine the microscopic anatomy of the octocoral skeleton, ultimately amassing a collection of over 40,000 images, many taken in stereo view.
  Dr Bayer was born in Asbury Park, New Jersey on Halloween night, 1921, but grew up in southern Florida, where he became an amateur naturalist at a young age, his early passion being the collection of seashells. His undergraduate education was interrupted by Second World War, during which time he served as a photographic technician in the Army Air Corps (36th Photo Reconnaissance) from December 1942 to December 1945. In this capacity he traveled to New Guinea, the Philippines and Okinawa, in his spare time making collections and drawings of shells, fish, and butterflies. He eventually received his BS from the University of Miami, and his MS and PhD degrees from George Washington University in 1954 and 1958, respectively.
  He was hired as a Smithsonian curator at the National Museum of Natural History in 1947. Almost immediately he was sent to Bikini Atoll to survey the marine fauna just two years after the nuclear testing at that island. He also spent many months of field work in Micronesia at Ifaluk (1953) and Palau (1955). Bayer left the Smithsonian in 1961 to become a Professor at the School of Marine Science, University of Miami. During that time he participated in numerous deep-sea collecting expeditions in the Caribbean and off western Africa, as well as mentoring over a dozen graduate students in the classification of exotic marine invertebrates. He returned to the Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution in 1975 where he continued his interrupted curatorial career for another 21 years until he retired in 1996. He continued to work and publish papers at the Museum as a Curator Emeritus until 2007 and was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Although an expert on corals, Ted Bayer was a broadly based naturalist, perhaps one of the most knowledgeable deep-sea biologists in the world.

Stephen D. Cairns

 

Submission by the International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature to the Inquiry into Systematics and Taxonomy by the House of LordsSelect Committee on Science and Technology

Introduction
  In January 2008 the U.K. House of Lords Science and Technology Committee, chaired by Lord Sutherland of Houndwood, announced a follow-up inquiry on systematic biology research and taxonomy. The stated objective was to provide an assessment on the state of the field five years after the Committee’s last report (‘What on earth? The threat to the science underpinning conservation’) in the context of new scientific, technological and policy developments. The 2003 House of Lords report, while focusing on the state of UK systematics and taxonomy, was widely read around the world, with influence in international scientific circles. Further information on the Committee’s activities and past reports can be found on http://www.parliament.uk/ hlscience/. Evidence was invited for the 2008 report, accompanied by a set of questions to which the Committee sought responses.
  Given the relevance of the topic to the role of ICZN, it was decided that the Trust should submit a written paper to the Select Committee. The following text was prepared by Lord Cranbrook (Chairman, ITZN), Ellinor Michel (Executive Secretary, ICZN) and Simon Coppard (Development Officer, ICZN).

Summary
  The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature (ITZN) is the UK-based charity dedicated to the support of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). ICZN was founded in 1895, at a period of confusing instability in the scientific naming of animals, and continues to be the internationally recognised regulator of zoological nomenclature. ICZN is now poised to provide its essential services in a manner that is dependable, durable, and freely accessible to the world-wide community of scientists and other users of its products through a web-based development known as ZooBank.
  It is essential for the scientific community that ICZN is positioned to provide this complete service before the end of the first decade of this new century. In the context of the service provided by ICZN to the UK and international community of systematic biologists, taxonomists and the many other users of animal names, it is anomalous, if not incredible, that the implementation of ZooBank should not be supported by UK national or international grant-giving bodies. A serious reappraisal of the funding arrangements for ICZN is overdue. A regulatory body of this importance to science should not be funded solely through the voluntary efforts of members of a small UK-registered charity.

Background
  The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature (ITZN or ‘the Trust’) is the UK-based charity dedicated solely to the funding of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN or ‘the Commission’). The Commission was founded in 1895 by the International Congress of Zoology, out of earlier organisations that included such notable biologists as Charles Darwin and Richard Owen. The aim of the Commission was then, and is still, to bring stability to zoological nomenclature.
  Stable nomenclature is at the heart of rigorous communication about biodiversity. Species names provide the ‘anchor’ to which all taxonomic, ecological, molecular and conservation data are attached. Legal protection and policy are also linked with names, not actual (mortal) animals, on the assumption that the groups indicated by the names are consistent through time and among places. Scientific discussion relies on names having unequivocal, context-independent meanings. Medical and veterinary implementation requires indisputable identifications. Although discovery and delineation of species may receive the emphasis of high-profile press coverage, all taxonomic practice is crucially dependent on a stable nomenclature to provide a steady platform on which to build. ICZN is the single professional organization devoted to ensuring that this work happens in a globally consistent way providing continuity both for new species discoveries and for the correction of errors in past works.
  ICZN provides and regulates a uniform system of zoological nomenclature ensuring that every animal has a unique and universally accepted scientific name. Currently the Commission is composed of 27 elected Commissioners from 19 countries around the world. These are leading zoologists who collectively represent all the major fields of zoology. In 2004 ICZN began a restructuring and modernisation programme to match the expanding capacity of information and communication technology (ICT) to underpin its service to the international scientific community.

ZooBank
  No analyses of patterns of biodiversity are immune to problems of unreliable nomenclature. Unfortunately, rates of error in linking names with their intended objects are very high due to the non-persistent nature of web pages (URLs regularly change, resulting in ‘link-rot’). Access to definitive nomenclatural sources remains difficult and is a part of biodiversity work that is often skimmed over by researchers. Error rates can then perpetuate throughout the analyses, sometimes multiplicatively, providing further examples of the adage ‘garbage in, garbage out’. In order to tackle this problem ICZN is developing a web-based nomenclatural tool, known as ZooBank, that will persistently maintain and disseminate nomenclaturally verified data for animal names using globally unique identifiers (GUIDs) for each animal name. This will then act as the source for ‘clean’ data for the many other downstream biodiversity tools such as the large-scale taxonomic initiatives of EDIT, Tree of Life, Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), etc.

  This initiative, to provide a universal, open-access, register of all species names, freely accessible via the World-Wide Web, was first announced in the journal Nature in September 2005. Favourable comments followed in both the popular and more specialised science press, and the concept has since received the universal support of scientists and policy makers. ICZN now has 117 Scientific Affiliates who have signed a Memorandum of Cooperation supporting the aims and objectives of ICZN, including ZooBank (Annex). A preliminary version of ZooBank, containing 1.6 million scientific names, was launched in August 2006 (www.zoobank.org) with the registration interface still under development. The ultimate achievement of ZooBank will mark the attainment of ICZN’s major objective, to provide enduring stability in nomenclature. It will be of huge significance to taxonomists, present and future, and the sciences dependent on their work, but will not eliminate the permanent need for a regulatory commission (ICZN) to oversee the process, with powers to resolve the more complex problems.

The Trust’s prospects 2008–2010
  Financial stability of the ICZN Secretariat, for the time being, is guaranteed by modest reserves held by the Trust, annual income from sales of the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature and of any future editions of the Code. Accommodation for the ICZN Secretariat, generously provided by the Natural History Museum, London, is not under threat. Under existing rules, however, ICZN is ineligible for UK Research Council funding, and the Trust receives no institutional support, UK government or international funding (e.g. UNESCO). The development of ZooBank, arguably ICZN’s most important current activity, therefore presents a severe challenge to the Trust as the funding organisation. Given the importance of ZooBank to the huge national and international community of taxonomists, systematic biologists and the many other users of animal names, now and into the future, it is anomalous, if not incredible, that the funding for this revolution in the working methods of ICZN should be wholly dependent on the voluntary efforts of the members of a small UK-registered charity.

  Initial costs will be incurred for retrospective registration of animal names, i.e., checking data against original publications going back to 1758, a task that can best be undertaken by experts in each specialised area of taxonomy. When the system is established ICZN will retain its essential regulatory role, ensuring a stable and ‘clean’ nomenclature that is an absolute necessity for all biodiversity work. Given that there are at least 1.6 million described animal species, and perhaps five to six times as many yet to be named, the ZooBank initiative ranks as a large-scale priority for biodiversity classification and management, ranking with other ‘big’ science initiatives in medicine or astronomy.

  At this stage, ITZN predicts that the cost of implementing ZooBank will be £1M. We have conditionally been pledged a quarter of this by the Gatsby Charitable Trust. ITZN hopes that, if the UK scientific funding bodies take a lead, the international community will respond in order to achieve the implementation of ZooBank within the shortest possible time.

The Committee’s Questions

What is the state of systematics research and taxonomy in the UK? What are the current research priorities? What are the barriers, if any, to delivering these priorities?
  Stable scientific names underpin systematics research and taxonomic classifications. Since 1895, this stability has been provided in zoology and all related fields of endeavour (including agricultural, veterinary and medical research, parasitology, the study of vectors of human, animal and plant diseases, etc.) by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN, or the ‘Commission’). The Commission consists of 27 eminent zoologists from 19 countries, governed by a president and council, with a secretariat staff operating from an office in the Natural History Museum, London (NHM). The ICZN Secretariat oversees the periodic publication of the updated Code of Zoological Nomenclature (the ‘Code’), which acts as the global foundation for the regulation of animal names.
  Nomenclatural problems arising from systematic or taxonomic research that require active intervention to arrive at a stable solution (via the Commission’s plenary power) are put to the ICZN by the scientists involved. These applications are published as technical papers and disseminated as widely as possible for professional comment before the Commissioners are individually polled for their collective decision. The Cases, Comments and definitive, binding Opinions reached by this process are published in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, with abstracts of Cases, Opinions and Comments (published in full) freely available online via the ICZN website (www.iczn.org). The current priority of ICZN is to bring animal nomenclature into the 21st century by adopting IT/bioinformatics to the fullest extent, ultimately providing the Commission’s regulatory services through a webbased system, freely accessible to those who use scientific animal names. This hugely important project has been titled ZooBank. ZooBank is recognized as the ultimate source for robust and ‘clean’ nomenclatural data both for established animal names and for the registration of newly discovered species, and is rapidly gaining the support of the broad scientific community with over 100 scientific institutions and societies having signed up to this initiative. Large scale biodiversity informatics projects such as the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) lack the capacity and authority to ensure stable nomenclature, with ZooBank being ‘a vital partner’ to their success (Jesse Ausubel, Chair of EOL Steering Committee). The support for ZooBank extends across the spectrum of taxonomy end-users, with comments such as the following not uncommon:
  ‘This accomplishment is a first major step towards completing the Linnaean enterprise, which is essential for mapping Earth’s still poorly known fauna. With the firm foundation ZooBank aims to provide, the rest of biology will be immensely strengthened, and humanity correspondingly benefited’ (Professor Edward O. Wilson, Harvard University, leading authority on biodiversity);
  ‘This is a hugely significant step for animal conservation. With ZooBank in place we will all have access to a single reference list of animal names, and so discussions about priority species and habitats can proceed with greater clarity and speed.’ (Professor Georgina Mace OBE FRS, Imperial College, London, leading authority on biodiversity).

What role do systematics and taxonomy play in research into biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services and climate change? Is that role recognised in the funding process?
  Biotic response to climate change will determine whether there is disruption of ecosystems and loss of their services from invasive and introduced organisms. Accurate taxonomy is key in all aspects of modelling, monitoring, and assessment of biotic response to past climate change, however this is underpinned by sound, universal and well-regulated nomenclature. Similarly, conservation efforts are meaningless without a stable nomenclature that serves the needs of legal protection and policy formulation, both of which legislate on names, not individual entities. Nomenclature is integral to all biodiversity and systematic research. However, the ICZN is not a basic research organization, thus its work is not eligible for research council funding. The ICZN is financially supported by a UK-registered charity, the International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature (ITZN or the ‘Trust’). The Trust receives no institutional, governmental or international funding and is run by a volunteer board. It is absurd that such an important service to science should be dependent on charitable donations from private sources.

Does the way in which systematics research is organised, co-ordinated and funded best meet the needs of the user community?
  ICZN provides a vital service to the community of users of animal names, as is evidenced by global attention to our mission. The development of ZooBank will be the definitive source for nomenclatural information for animals, and thus will increase good taxonomic practice throughout the research community. It will also be poised to ensure validity of the 16,000 to 18,000 new names for animals described each year (many more than among plants or bacteria). Thus ZooBank, and the work of the ICZN, provide both an authority and a hub for maintaining and disseminating high quality data. As a critical link in high standard taxonomic practice that both organizes and coordinates information, it is short-sighted that the ICZN and ZooBank are under-funded and dependent on private charitable and trust contributions.

What is the role of the major museums and collections in taxonomy research? How are taxonomic collections curated and funded?
  Zoological nomenclature is founded on the identification and safe custody of type specimens which (under the Code) should be deposited at a museum or institute of recognised standing. There is thus a fundamental relationship between a stable zoological nomenclature and the responsible curation of specimens at these institutions. The work of the ICZN adds value to collections; the significance of type collections is dependent on the legitimacy conferred by nomenclatural acts. The ICZN secretariat also relies heavily on access to the library at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, which is the best collection of natural history publications in the world. This regular, practical use of the library increases its effectiveness on a global scale. Thus our location within the museum is key to our effective functioning and adds value to the core functions of the museum as an archive of type specimens and literature. This key role deserves governmental recognition and funding.

What progress has been made in developing web based taxonomy? What can be done to ensure web based taxonomy is reliable and of high quality?
  ICZN and ZooBank are at the forefront of making web-taxonomy accessible. The deployment of ZooBank will provide a web-based regulatory system for a stable, high quality zoological nomenclature, underpinning all animal sciences. The essential software is already developed, a demonstration data set of 1.6 million names has been accessed from Zoological Record, and the first newly described species have been registered. We are now in need of specific funds for retrospective registration of unverified names on a large scale to ensure completeness. This project will require an expansion phase to be effective, but in the long term will be self-supporting as the scientific community self-registers names (in the manner of GenBank). In concert with development of ZooBank, the ICZN will make facilitation of reliable web-based taxonomy and the archiving of new species descriptions central in developing the next edition of the Code (projected publication time in 2010). Funds are now required for the implementation of this essential project.

Does the UK have adequate numbers of trained taxonomists? What is the state of training and education in systematics and taxonomy?
  ICZN is an international body, serving the international community of scientists using animal names, but is based in the UK due to the quality of the collections, library and history of work on taxonomy. The Commission’s services are constantly in demand by this international community and, through its regulatory role, ICZN adds value to the UK’s taxonomic resources. As there are severe shortages of taxonomic specialists, a fully-functioning nomenclatural regulatory body must work through an active networking process on a global scale. Current training in biology often lacks the basics of nomenclatural practice. Given appropriate resources, the ICZN is prepared to contribute to systematics and Code-related nomenclatural training programmes at a number of levels, from introductory university courses to postgrad speciality courses. We also see that eventually part of our mission is to provide guidance for the active taxonomic community, to improve its understanding of nomenclatural practice through ZooBank. In an idealized sense, once ZooBank is fully established it will guarantee improved nomenclatural practice through the Code compliant registration of all new species and overall, decrease the traditional work of the regulatory body. We recognize that the role of the ICZN will need to evolve as genetic species descriptions and taxonomic practices adapt to meet the biodiversity crisis. We are uniquely poised to meet these demands and expect that the role and function of ICZN will increase exponentially in coming years.